Fiske, Susan and Shelley E. Taylor (1990), Social Cognition, Mc-Graw Hill (in press). McGaugh, G.Lynch, (eds. IMPLICIT MEMORY AND JUDGMENT What is the relationship between implicit memory tests and judgment ? Riding a bike, tying a shoe and washing dishes are all tasks that require procedural memory. If performance on implicit priming tests is mediated by a single memory system then stochastic dependence between two implicit tests should be found. Further Snodgrass and Feenan (1989, as cited by Schacter, Delaney and Merikle, 1990) have also shown that priming is greater when the same picture fragment is presented for identification during the study and test periods than when different fragments are presented. Unlike semantic memory, which is a general knowledge about the world, implicit memory doesn’t require conscious awareness for it to be retrieved from your long-term memory. However results by Witherspoon and Moscovitch (1989) show stochastic independence between word-fragment completion and perceptual identification. Most implicit tests being data driven, are quite sensitive to the modality match between study and test (Graf, Shimamura and Squire, 1985; Kirsner, Milech and Standen, 1983). Schacter, D.L., J.Bowers and J. Booker, (1989), "Intention, Awareness and Implicit Memory: The Retrieval Intentionality Criterion," In S. Lewandowsky, J.C.Dunn and K.Kirsner (Eds.) A relevant question, is do consumers implicitly learn about covariations in their environment which influence their judgments and purchase behavior. If something has no prior representation in memory - such as the association between two unrelated items- and can be learned implicitly, it is obvious that the activation account cannot be sustained. (1986), "Mechanisms of Memory," Science, 232, 1612-1619. Tulving E. (1972), "Episodic and Semantic Memory," In E. Tulving and W. Donaldson (Eds. The more common pattern is to observe a gradient of priming - more priming within modality (A-A or V-V) than across modality (A-V, V-A), but significant priming even across modality (Bassili, Smith and MacLeod, 1989). The debate between these two contending viewpoints depends on how each side defines cognition and affect (Anand and Sternthal, 1991). Brand names can be either everyday words used in the language (Tide, Dial, ...) invested with product attributes or they can also be constructed words (Sentra, Compaq, Accord) which are not in the normal lexicon of words. Jacoby, L. L. (1983b), "Remembering the Data: Analyzing Interactive Processes in Reading," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 485-508. This is discussed later under the "retrieval intentionality criterion". It is believed that the brain deliberately sends a message saying to forget about ignored stimuli. Shimamura, A. P. (1986), "Priming Effects in Amnesia: Evidence for a Dissociable Memory Function," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38A, 619-644. In other words, implicit memory appears to be less affected by the kinds of interference manipulations that reduce retention in explicit tasks (Jacoby, 1983a; Graf and Schacter, 1985). Dissociations between implicit and explicit memory: As stated earlier dissociation in performance on the two types of memory tests (explicit or implicit) has sparked significant research interest in implicit memory. There is however considerable turmoil regarding this issue in direct priming (see below) and the issue is analyzed at a more molecular level with no discernible agreement in the research community as to the appropriate theoretical (memory) framework. Definitional aspects of Implicit Memory Implicit memory should be defined (to avoid any ambiguity) in terms of unintentional or involuntary retrieval processes and the concept is restricted to those cases in which it is possible to demonstrate that test performance is facilitated by information acquired during a study episode without any recollective re-experiencing or awareness of remembering on the subject's part (Schacter, Bowers, and Booker; 1989). A.P.Shimamura and P.Graf (1985), Independence of Recognition Memory and Priming Effects: A Neuropsychological Analysis," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11, 37-44. Lazarus, R.S. If participants had seen the word for a two seconds, five minutes earlier, they recognized it faster when presented in degraded form. For example, exposing someone to the word "yellow" will evoke a faster response to the word "banana" than it would to unrelated words like "television." A relevant question is at what stage does a constructed word become part of the mental lexicon of consumers and what role would priming play in understanding this transition. A key issue in this area is that implicit and explicit forms of memory can be quite independent of each other (Graf and Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987) which is refered to as dissociation. : Harvard University Press. A necessary assumption (the transparency assumption, Dunn and Kirsner, 1989) made in the literature in order to support "dissociation" effects is that there is a one to one mapping from task to process. Implicit memory can be a task-based definition (Schacter 1985) and it can also be inferred from dissociation between two measures of memory (Graf and Schacter, 1985). 1979) and fragment completion (Ellis and Collins, 1983). Stem completion, fragment completion, and perceptual identification are some of the implicit memory measures used. There are many different examples of how this priming works. Mitchell (1989), observed a robust facilitation of naming latency (as compared to explicit memory tests) in young and old subjects at different intervals between presentation of the prime and the target stimulus. Priming refers to the process by which previous experience increases the general accessibility of a conceptual category, thereby increasing the likelihood of that category being used to encode new information (Fiske and Taylor 1990). Weldon, M.S. Bettman James R. and Mita Sujan (1987), "Effects of Framing on Evaluation of Comparable and Non-Comparable Alternatives by Expert and Novice Consumers," Journal of Consumer Research, 14, September, 141-154. This relies on the distinction between conceptually-driven (top-down) and data driven (bottom-up) processing. Squire, L.R. Meyer, D.E. Retrieved Dec 27, 2020 from Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/priming. New York: Plenum. Musen Gail and Anne Treisman (1990), "Implicit and Explicit Memory for Visual Patterns," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 16 (1), 127-137. In M.Moscovitch (Ed. Tulving, E. (1985), "How many Memory Systems are there? Jacoby (1983) has shown that while generation (high LOP) produced better recognition memory than a reading task (low LOP), there were opposite effects in perceptual identification (implicit memory task) ie., read tasks produced better performance than generate. Hillsdale, N.J. Erlbaum. The major argument is that information encoded via one of these general types of processes is best retrieved using the same or similar process. As the effect increases with time, it suggests that the details of the original stimulus are lost and the primed representation becomes relatively important. Anand and Sternthal (1988) used a dichotic learning task to investigate the affect without recognition phenomenon. Implicit memory is a type of long-term memory that doesn't require conscious retrieval. J.G. Priming effects have also been found to actually increase with greater time intervals between the target stimulus (test) and the rating, holding the time interval between the prime (study) and the stimulus (target) constant (Fiske and Taylor, 1990). A two by two classification of actual exposure status and judged status was then used with: hit (old item judged to be old), miss (old item judged to be new), false alarm (new item judged to be old), correct rejection (new item judged to be new). Hillsdale, N.J. Erlbaum. Thus if intentional retrieval is equated with explicit memory then this would rule out cases when subjects might become aware of a prior event without attempting to do so - a situation of involuntary explicit memory. MacLeod, Colin M. and John N. Bassili (1989), "Are Implicit and Explicit Tests Differentially Sensitive to Item-Specific vs Relational Information," In S. Lewandowsky, J.C.Dunn and K.Kirsner (Eds.) This project has received funding from the, Select from one of the other courses available, Creative Commons-License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0), European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. For example, w… Caution is usually exercised in separating out the prime from the target with some intervening distractor task so as to ensure that subjects are unaware of the prime (Bargh and Pietromonaco, 1982). Srull T. K. and R. S. Wyer (1979), " The Role of Category Accessibility in the Interpretation of Information about Persons: Some Determinants and Implications," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 625-629. Even after going years without riding one, most people are able to hop on a bike and ride it effortlessly. A latency of response measure which would result in increase of processing time for the questions considered relevant to the covariation was used. Vanderwert, M. (1984), "Priming by Pictures in Lexical Decision," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 67-83. In the second (test) stage which follows the first after an interval of maybe a few seconds to days or weeks, the subject is given reduced perceptual information about the object and asked to name or categorize it. Some untenable assumptions are necessary about the mental states or processes which ignores the complexity of such processes. Hunt and Toth (1990) have reported some limitations in using this framework with regard to the effect of orthographic distinctiveness of words. (1979), "Credibility of Repeated Statements: Memory for Trivia," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 5, 241-252. Jacoby, L.L. Hayes, N.A. Meyers-Levy Joan, (1989), "The Influence of a Brand Name's Association Set Size and Word Frequency on Brand Memory," Journal of Consumer Research, 16, (September), 197-207. However results by Witherspoon and Moscovitch (1989) show stochastic independence between word … Factors from studies in social cognition known to affect priming Several factors in social cognition have been found to influence the accessibility of using a primed trait. This means that the first stimulus (the color yellow for example) activates parts of a memory association prior to working on another task. Implicit Memory: Theoretical Issues. Specificity of priming effects The specificity of priming effects is an interesting issue worthy of future research. Fiske, Susan and Shelley E. Taylor (1990), Social Cognition, Mc-Graw Hill (in press). Priming can be associative, negative, positive, affective, conceptual, perceptual, repetitive, or semantic. It should also be demonstrated that explicit memory performance is at or near chance levels, which in turn would imply that priming effects do not involve awareness of the study episode. Perceptual identification or fluency is usually measured in terms of how well an item can be identified under impoverished conditions. and S. Streete (1988), "Implicit and Explicit Memory in Young Children and Adults," British Journal Of Psychology, 79, 361-369. Other implicit measures used are solving anagrams (Srinivas and Roediger; 1990). We also can remember more abstract concepts, all the people we know, and we remember the many skills we have acquired. © 2020 Association for Consumer Research, The Journal of the Association for Consumer Research (JACR). In all these studies, explicit memory tests showed a large LOP effect for the same study and test stimuli. If they relied only on the search factor then perceptual fluency might not affect judged repetition status and perceptual fluency would vary across recognition outcomes in the following manner: hits = misses > false alarms = correct rejections. FINDINGS IN "PRIMING AND IMPLICIT MEMORY" RELEVANT FOR CONSUMER BEHAVIOR In the next few pages I will make an attempt to briefly present what I feel are some of the relevant findings in priming and implicit memory that may be of some importance in studying consumer behavior. Dunn, J.C. and K.Kirsner (1989), "Implicit Memory: Task or Process," In S. Lewandowsky, J.C.Dunn and K.Kirsner (Eds.) Ratcliff Roger, and Gail McKoon (1988), "A Retrieval Theory of Priming in Memory," Psychological Review, 95 (3), 385-408. Zajonc, R. B., and H. Markus, (1982), "Affective and Cognitive Factors in Preferences, Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 123-131. and S.A. Daniel (1970), "Two Kinds of Response Priming in Tachistoscopic Recognition, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 84, 74-81. ), Organization of Memory (381-403). More pieces of the picture are shown until the picture is recognized. This is to be distinguished from "explicit memory" which refers to conscious recollection of recently presented information found in traditional test of free recall, cued recall and recognition. ), Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 3-64, New York: Guilford Press. Herr, Paul M., (1989), "Priming Price: Prior Knowledge and Context Effects," Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 1, (June), 67-75. Implicit Memory: Theoretical Issues. There are two findings that are often cited as evidence for support of the activation theory with regard to repetition priming for nonwords and therefore could be used for understanding brand name (constructed) priming effects. Implicit Memory: Theoretical Issues. Stem completion, fragment completion, and perceptual identification are some of the implicit memory measures used. and its major support arises from the observed independence or dissociation between explicit and implicit memory systems (Schacter, 1987) These dissociations as Schacter (1987) Tulving and Schacter (1990) argue lead to the possibility of a single perceptual representation (PRS) which may exist separately from other memory systems and suggest that implicit and explicit memory performance are reflections of the operation of separate subsystems in memory. Norman, D.A. Lazarus (1982) however defends the cognitive-affective model and contends that the absence of recognition does not imply the absence of cognition. (1977), "Semantic Priming and Retrieval from Lexical Memory: Role of Inhibitionless Spreading Activation and Limited Capacity Attention," Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, 226-254. (1989), "The Development and Nature of Implicit Memory," In S. Lewandowsky, J.C.Dunn and K.Kirsner (Eds.) In some of the literature however (Schacter, Delaney and Merikle, 1990) the term "priming" has been used interchangeably with implicit memory and is therefore a source of considerable confusion. Lockart Robert S. (1989), "The Role of Theory in Understanding Implicit Memory," In S. Lewandowsky, J.C.Dunn and K.Kirsner (Eds.) In P.A. Krishnagopal Dharani, in The Biology of Thought, 2015. Direct and indirect measures are sometimes influenced similarly by certain variables (Richardson-Klavehn and Bjork; 1988). This issue is important because if implicit memory is age invariant, it may support effective interventions in individuals experiencing memory decline. A major issue is that of dissociations or independence between explicit and implicit memory systems. Studies by Gollin (1960, 1962), Parkin and Streete (1988), Caroll, Byrne and Kirsner (1985) all point to strong priming effects regardless of age of the subjects. (1981), "Human Learning and Memory," Annual Review of Psychology, 32,pp 21-52. In this study, we overcame several methodological issues in past research to clarify age effects on implicit memory (priming) and their relationship to explicit memory (recognition, source memory). This activation account is however inconsistent with the current debate in implicit memory research where there is evidence about the formation of implicit new associations which can be acquired, used or retrieved implicitly (Graf and Schacter's; 1985,1987). Lewandowsky, Kirsner and Bainbridge (1989) have suggested a sense-activation view to reflect implicit memory for new associations.Their data suggest that it is the re-instatement at the rating stage (after target stimulus or at the test stage) of the encoded sense of the word rather than the use of a new association between the cue (or context) and target that gives rise to implicit new associations. and D.Schacter (1985), "Implicit and Explicit Memory for New Associations in Normal and Amnesic Patients," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11, 501-518. Several factors in social cognition have been found to influence the accessibility of using a primed trait. What are the likely effects for the elderly consumer where the age deficits that are obtained so consistently on direct tests are reduced or eliminated when indirect tests are used (Howard, in press). In this article I review some key aspects of implicit memory relevant to consumer behavior and discuss some possible areas of research. and D.Schacter (1985), "Implicit and Explicit Memory for New Associations in Normal and Amnesic Patients," Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11, 501-518. You are free to copy, share and adapt any text in the article, as long as you give. Graf,P. Tulving, E (1983), Elements of Episodic Memory. You can use it freely (with some kind of link), and we're also okay with people reprinting in publications like books, blogs, newsletters, course-material, papers, wikipedia and presentations (with clear attribution). Johnson, M.K., J.K.Kim and G. Risse (1985), "Do Alcoholic Korsakoff's Syndrome Patients Acquire Affective Reactions? An activated representation readily pops into mind on an implicit memory test but since it is decontextualized, does not contribute to explicit remembering of the episode. S.M.Delaney and E.P.Merikle (1990), "Priming of Nonverbal Information and the Nature of Implicit Memory," In The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, G.H.Bower (ed. Some untenable assumptions are necessary about the mental states or processes which ignores the complexity of such processes. As Schacter's (1987) review suggest, none of the three existing theoretical approaches can accommodate all of the available data. - implicit because you don't need to recall seeing the priming stimulus The distinction between episodic and semantic memory has also been invoked to to account for this dissociation, (Tulving, 1972, Cermak et al., 1985; Kinsbourne and Wood, 1975; Parkin, 1982; Tulving and Schacter, 1982; Tulving, 1983). Winnick and Daniel (1970) found that recall was higher following study of a picture than study of the corresponding word, but priming effects on the word-identification test were greater following study of the word than study of the picture (see also Weldon and Roediger; 1987). This activation is automatic and decontextualized and is not affected by any ongoing elaborative processing. Priming is said to have been displayed if the probability of the identification of the previously encountered stimulus object is increased. The debate between these two contending viewpoints depends on how each side defines cognition and affect (Anand and Sternthal, 1991). In the second (test) stage which follows the first after an interval of maybe a few seconds to days or weeks, the subject is given reduced perceptual information about the object and asked to name or categorize it. (1962), "Serial Learning and Perceptual Recognition in Children: Training, Delay, and Order Effects," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 23,751-758. For example, Schacter and Tulving have proposed that while repetition priming is mediated by a perceptual representation system, semantic priming is mediated by a semantic memory system and spared procedural learning (see "Explicit and Implicit Learning", below) by a procedural memory system (Schacter & Tulving, 1994). This conflict takes time to resolve resulting in negative priming. A.P.Shimamura and P.Graf (1987), "Strength and Duration of Priming Effects in Normal and Amnesic Subjects," Neuropsychologia, 25,195-210. This discussion also has to be within the context of the earlier discussion on the retrieval internationality criterion (Schacter, Bowers, and Booker; 1989). Graf and Schacter (1985) introduced the concept of implicit versus explicit memory, which was more of a descriptive as opposed to a process distinction. Graf and Schacter (1985) introduced the concept of implicit versus explicit memory, which was more of a descriptive as opposed to a process distinction. Their conclusion is that perceptual fluency plays a significant role in recognition judgments and may be the basis of the feeling of familiarity. If they relied only on the search factor then perceptual fluency might not affect judged repetition status and perceptual fluency would vary across recognition outcomes in the following manner: hits = misses > false alarms = correct rejections. Collins, A. M., and E. F. Loftus (1975), "A Spreading Activation Theory of Semantic Processing," Psychological Review, 82, 407-428. In other words the effects of priming on dimensions descriptively or evaluatively related to the primed trait are increased (or assimilated) by: (a) increasing the number of trait-relevant items used during the priming task (Srull and Wyer, 1979; 1980); (b) decreasing the time interval between the priming task and the presentation of information about the target character (Srull and Wyer, 1979,1980); (c) increasing time interval between the target character's information (behaviors) and the judgment (Srull and Wyer, 1980); (d) increasing the ambiguity of the target character's behavior (Srull and Wyer, 1979); (e) increasing expectations that category-relevant events will occur (Higgins, Kuiper and Olson, 1980); (f) increasing frequency of activation of the category (Wyer and Srull, 1980) and (g) increasing the strength of semantic relationships between the category and other activated concepts (Collins and Loftus, 1975; Warren 1972). Bacon (1979), Begg et al (1985) have found that prior exposure to statements, or components of statements increases the truth rating of those statements. Heath, Timothy B. Bettman James R., D. R. John and C. A . Shiffrin (1984), "A Retrieval Model for both Recognition and Recall," Psychological Review, 91, 1-67. Warren, R. E. (1972), "Stimulus Encoding and Memory," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 94, 90-100. In their second experiment they reduced the contribution of the search factor by using nonwords rather than words and found that recognition judgments were much more dependent on speed of identification than they were on actual old/new status. In M.Moscovitch (Ed. A second theoretical account is proposed by the processing view in which the interaction between encoding and retrieval is the focus (Jacoby, 1983; Roediger and Blaxton, 1987a, Hunt and Toth, 1990). and P.Pietromonaco, (1982), "Automatic Information Processing and Social Perception: The Influence of Trait Information Presented Outside of Conscious Awareness on Impression Information, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 437-499. Winnick, W.A. A latency of response measure which would result in increase of processing time for the questions considered relevant to the covariation was used. It is therefore suggested that the terms direct and indirect be used to distinguish memory tests which would be based on instructions and methods of measurement. Collins (1983), "Repetition Priming of Fragment Completion is Modality Specific and Independent of Conscious Episodic Memory: A Replication and Extension of Tulving, Schacter and Stark (1982)," Unpublished Manuscript, University of Lancaster, U,K. Roediger ; 1990 ), `` a Retrieval Model for both recognition and recall, '' G.Lynch. Speed to slower than un-primed levels affect without recognition phenomenon any text in the above frameworks does appear! Taylor, 1990 for an alternative viewpoint ) purchase behavior to hop on a task does! A Special Report, '' Cortex, 18,417-440, 327-336 mental states and processes in! Issues from the Psychological literature are briefly discussed followed by some of the picture Superiority effect, and... Visually or auditorily and then try to identify visually degraded words search factors, 18,417-440 '' G.Lynch. Being an activation process can also underlie explicit memory ( e.g., priming is caused by exp… Part 1 what. 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